OFQ/N knockout mice exhibit increased stress-induced analgesia when housed in groups, an environmental condition that may be a source of chronic mild stress. Central administrations of NPS also produce anxiolytic-like effects independent of its effects on locomotion (Xu et al., 2004). NPS furthermore facilitates extinction of conditioned fear responses when administered into the amygdala, a response that can be reversed by an NPS receptor antagonist (Jüngling et al., 2008). Consequently these

data indicate that the NPS system is involved not only in anxiety behavior and but also in extinction. These results are in line with the observation that specific NPSR alleles Ku-0059436 cost appear to be associated in human with panic disorder, a specific form of anxiety disorder (Okamura et al., 2007). The role of the NPB/W system in fear conditioning has been revealed by behavioral studies

of the NPB/W receptor 1 KO mice ( Nagata-Kuroiwa et al., 2011). These mice exhibit an intriguing pattern of behavioral abnormalities in the resident-intruder paradigm. When presented with an intruder mouse, these mice display impulsive contact with the strange mice, produce more intense approaches and longer contact selleck chemicals llc toward them. They also sustain a higher elevation of heart rate and blood pressure as compared to wild-type mice. Histological and electrophysiological studies show that NPB/W receptor 1 acts as an inhibitory regulator on a subpopulation of GABAergic neurons in the lateral division of the

central amygdala and terminates stress responses. Together these data suggest that impairment of the NPB/W system leads to stress vulnerability ( Nagata-Kuroiwa et al., 2011). The discussion of these five orphan GPCR systems provides only a few examples of the data implicating novel neuromodulators in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders. While these studies are still preliminary, they set new bases to investigate brain function. Since there exist some 70 GPCRs that are still orphan and that classify, on the basis of their Methisazone sequences, as potential neuromodulator receptors, many neuromodulators remain to be found which could drastically enrich our understanding of mental health. In this respect, because GPCRs are excellent targets for drug design, the newest neuromodulator receptors carry our best hope for devising therapies that aim at managing psychiatric disorders in a radically new way. The author is thankful to his colleagues Zhiwei Wang, Rainer Reinscheid, Yan Zhang, Nayna Sanathara, and Shinjae Chung for their help during the preparation of the manuscript. The work done in the author’s laboratory was supported by National Institute of Health Grants MH60231, DA024746, an Established Investigator Award from the National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression (NARSAD), and a Tourette Syndrome Association award.