, 2007). Novel E. coli ligand, yet uncharacterized, seems to be involved in vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 (VEGFR1)–dependent invasion of BMECs. Stimulation by E. coli ligand promotes the physical association between VEGFR1 and p85 subunit of PI-3 kinase. VEGFR1 is necessary for PI-3 kinase/Akt activation and actin cytoskeleton rearrangements (Zhao et al., 2010). Variable small protein 1 (Vsp1) of Borrelia turicatae has been shown to bind to the BMECs (Sethi et al., 2006) and Selleckchem Daporinad predicted to be involved in the passage of Borrelia through BBB. In addition, B. burgdorferi is able to adhere to proteoglycans in the ECM of the peripheral nerves and ECs

(Leong et al., 1998). It is a well-known fact that Borrelia can bind plasminogen and promotes degradation of the find more ECM (Coleman et al., 1997). On the other hand, fibrinolytic system also initiates other proteases, including matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are predicted to be essential for borrelial invasion into the brain (Grab et al., 2005). OspA and OspE/F-related proteins (ErpP, ErpA, and ErpC) are crucial for the binding of plasminogen (Comstock & Thomas, 1991; Lahteenmaki et al., 2001; Brissette

et al., 2009). Borrelia is also capable of stimulating adhesion proteins like E-selectin, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, etc. (Coburn et al., 1993, 1998; Ebnet et al., 1997), which renders host cells more susceptible to pathogen invasion (Table 1). The pathogenic T. pallidum adheres to the vascular endothelium and readily penetrates surrounding tissues. Lee and coworkers (Lee et al., 2003) have also proposed a role of fibronectin in the mediation of the attachment of T. pallidum to host cells. It is also predicted that T. pallidum interacts with laminin (laminin-1, laminin-2, laminin-4, laminin-8, and laminin-10) with its molecule Tp0751 and may promote tissue invasion. It was also shown that 10 amino acids between the positions 98–101,

127–128, and 182–185 in Tp0751 are critical for the laminin attachment (Cameron, 2003). Furthermore, Selleck Atezolizumab T. pallidum induces the expression of ICAM-1 and procoagulant activity on the surface of HUVEC. ICAM-1 expression in HUVEC is promoted by a 47-kDa integral membrane lipoprotein of T. pallidum (Riley et al., 1992). Forty-seven-kilodalton lipoprotein also induces other adhesion molecules like VCAM-1 and E-selectin and promotes the adherence of T lymphocytes to ECs (Lee et al., 2000). This indicates an important role of spirochete membrane lipoproteins in EC activation and translocation. CNS invasion of bacteria described below is rare, yet it is important to know in brief their modes of BBB translocation. The zonula occludens toxin produced by Vibrio cholerae causes TJ disruption by triggering signaling processes, like phospholipase C and PKCα activation, and actin polymerization.