Exclusion criteria for all participants were as follows: age less than 18 years, current serious medical conditions, history of head trauma, organic mental disorders, or neurological disorders. An additional exclusion criterion for bipolar disorder patients was history of alcohol/substance abuse or dependence within the 6 months preceding study entry. Cognitive measures Verbal ability was estimated via the standard Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical score from the Wechsler Test of Adult Reading (Wechsler 2001). Nonverbal ability was estimated using the Test

of Nonverbal Intelligence (Brown et al. 1997). Full scale intelligence quotient (IQ) was estimated by averaging scores on these measures. Long-term verbal memory was evaluated using the total learning score from trials 1–5 of the California Verbal Learning Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Test (CVLT; Delis et al. 1987) Sustained attention and impulsive responding were evaluated using total hits, mean reaction time, and false alarms from the Identical Pairs-Continuous Performance Test (IPCPT; Cornblatt and Malhotra 2001). Structural brain

volumes High resolution 3D brain images were acquired on a Philips Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 1.5 T MR system (Philips Medical System, Andover, MA). Images were collected by means of an axial three-dimensional, T1-weighted, fast field echo sequence (field of view 256 mm; view matrix 256 · 256; repetition time 24 ms; echo time 5 ms; flip angle 40 degrees, slice thickness 1 mm). For the present study, volumetric measurements were extracted through a standard procedure using Freesurfer software (Greve and Fischl 2009; Postelnicu et al. 2009; Fischl 2012) version 4.5.0 (http://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/). Specifically, the ‘recon-all’ Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical command embedded within Freesurfer was executed for all T1-weighted scan data and resulting Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical anatomical volumes used for subsequent statistical analyses. Genotyping DNA came from blood samples drawn from the study

subjects. White blood cells were first separated from plasma, and then the PUREGENE, Gentra Systems, assay was used to isolate the DNA from each subject. Genotypes were determined using a 5′-fluorogenic exonuclease assay (TaqMan®, Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA). The ANK3 (rs10994336), BDNF (rs6265), CACNA1C (rs1006737), and DGKH (rs1170191) genotypes were determined using the TaqMan® primer-probe Rolziracetam sets (Applied Biosystems) Assay ID C_31344821_10 (rs10994336), C_11592758_10 (rs6265), C_2584015_10 (rs1006737), and C_7448168_10 (rs1170191). PCR LY2835219 supplier amplification was performed using Platinum® quantitative PCR SuperMix-UDG (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) on a GeneAmp® PCR system 9700. Samples were amplified at 50°C for 2 min, 95°C for 10 min, and then 50 cycles of 95°C for 15 s, and 60°C for 1 min. The amplification products were analyzed using an Applied Biosystems Prism® 7900 sequence detection system and SDS 2.2 software (Applied Biosystems).