Thus, treatment with soluble GITRL alleviated the suppression mediated by highly activated tumor infiltrating Tregs, and it may therefore be considered as an adjuvant to immunotherapeutic interventions aimed at stimulating efficient antitumor T cell activity at the tumor site. Normal liver contains significant Dabrafenib ic50 numbers of lymphocytes, with high frequencies of CD8+ T cells, NK cells, and NKT cells.23, 24 All

of these cell types are potential effectors of tumor growth control. Interestingly, we found that their frequencies were decreased in the tumor bed in both HCC and LM-CRC patients. Furthermore, tumor-derived CD4+CD25− T cells displayed significantly decreased tumor-specific proliferative capacity compared with those from PB, and tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells exhibited a reduced expression of cytotolytic effector molecules, confirming similar findings in HCC in viral hepatitis patients.17, 27 These dramatic changes in the composition and function of lymphocytes within the tumors suggest that an immunopermissive VX-770 in vitro environment is essential for liver cancer development. Here, using tissue from predominantly Caucasian patients, we show that functional Tregs accumulated in the tumors of patients with HCC without viral hepatitis

infection. In fact, more than half of HCC patients had no known prior liver disease, and the histology of 15 of 21 HCC patients showed no or mostly mild fibrosis in the surrounding liver tissue (Metavir score F1-F2). These data suggest that the HCC microenvironment by itself

selleck can induce the presence of high numbers of functional Tregs that can locally suppress the tumor-specific T cell response. Compared with HCC, in tissue from LM-CRC we found an even higher frequency of tumor-infiltrating Tregs, which also displayed a more activated phenotype and superior inhibition of CD4+ T cell responses to tumor and nontumor antigens. Our data suggest that local proliferation of tumor-infiltrating Tregs may contribute to the higher frequencies observed in LM-CRC tumors. A recent study in HCC in viral hepatitis patients suggested the possible migration of Tregs mediated by CCL-20 produced at the tumor site,28 and even though this mechanism is still elusive, in LM-CRC the expression of CCL20 appears to be higher than in HCC,29 which may also contribute to the increased numbers of Tregs observed in LM-CRC. Together, these findings support potential tumor-specific rather than organ-specific Treg recruitment and activation in primary and secondary liver cancers. The high frequencies of CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ Tregs in the tumors and their profound suppression of T cell responses as observed in this study strongly support the possibility that in vivo at the tumor site, these Tregs may inhibit local antitumor immunity, which might promote tumor survival and may also interfere with immunotherapeutic efforts to induce efficient antitumor immunity.